RPS8 gene sequence information

The complete sequences of the RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene were obtained from twenty-three isolates representing seven Babesia and six Theileria spp. in China (Table 1). The primers were designed to amplify 561 bp of coding sequence for Babesia species and 573 bp of coding sequence for Theileria species, which are known to be interrupted by an intron in Babesia species and two introns in Theileria species. The size of the introns varied from 146 bp in T. sinensis to 282 bp in Babesia sp. Kashi2 and were specifically located at the conserved position in all the species (Figure 1). The identity of nucleotide sequences of RPS8 between Babesia and Theileria species varied from 63.5% to 82.9% (interspecific variability), whereas within Babesia and Theileria species (intraspecific variability) the identity was approximately 89% to 99.7% respectively (data not shown). The nucleotide sequences of the RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) genes of Babesia and Theileria species in this study have been deposited in the GenBank database under accession Nos. JN400408 to JN4004028 and Nos. JX402859 to JX402860. The nucleotide sequences of the 18S rDNA genes of several Theileria species in this study have been deposited in the GenBank database under accession Nos. KF559355 to KF559357. The nucleotide sequences of the RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) genes of B. bovis USA isolate (NW_001820855), B. microti USA isolate (FO082874), T. annulata Ankara strain (NC_011099), T. parva Muguga strain (NC_007345), T. orientalis Shintoku strain (AP011947), T. equi Florida strain (ACOU00000000) were drawn from the GenBank database.

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Figure 1. The alignment of RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) sequences from B. bovis and Theileria species.

B. bovis (GenBank accession no. JN400409); B. microti (GenBank accession no. FO082874); T. annulata (GenBank accession no. NC_011099); B. bovis (GenBank accession no. NW_001820855) were aligned using the ClustalW2 program. The non-coding region is marked with gray shading.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079860.g001

Interspecific Genetic Distance

The ribosome, with its conserved central role in protein synthesis, has long constituted a prime subject for phylogenetic analysis [17]. The coding sequence of the RPS8 gene displays moderate conservation as a constitutive component of the ribosome. Compared with the moderate sequence identity seen in RPS8 coding regions from Babesia and Theileria species, the RPS8 non-coding regions are highly divergent. Using the Tamura–Nei model of sequence evolution, d values (Genetic Distance) were calculated independently across coding and non-coding region sequences (Data not shown). Across Babesia and Theileria species, d ranges were 0.07903 - 0.47956 (coding) and 0.12511- 1.14484 (non-coding regions). The d-values for non-coding regions are on average 2-fold greater than those for coding regions. Furthermore, the degree of variation in the RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) dataset was considerable when observing pairwise differences between sequences. Among the eight Babesia and seven Theielria species sequenced, the average p-distances were 0.45, while for the 18S rDNA the average p-distance is 0.083, indicating the RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) being more variable than the 18S rDNA (Data not shown).

Comparison of the RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene-based phylogenetic trees and the 18S rDNA gene-based phylogenetic trees

Phylogenetic trees based on the 18S rDNA and RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) genes were constructed by the best-fit model of Bayesian and Maximum likelihood (ML) analysis (Figure 2 and 3). The Bayesian trees were congruent with those obtained under the ML criterion. Nodes receiving ≥85% bootstrap (BP) support in the Maximum likelihood analysis and/or ≥0.98 posterior probability (PP) in the Bayesian analysis were considered strongly statistically supported, and nodes receiving <60 BP and /or <0.90 PP were considered poorly supported, revealing significant levels of genetic diversity. In the RPS8 tree, the Bayesian and ML analyses returned nearly identical topologies, however, for Theileria species, there was less resolution in the ML analysis given that the RPS8 gene is highly variable. The datasets with significant heterogeneity result in the long-branch attraction and poor resolution at relatively deeper nodes when using the ML approach [18].

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Figure 2. Inferred phylogenetic relationship among representative Babesia and Theileria species based on 18S rDNA sequences.

The 18S rDNA sequences were analyzed utilizing Bayesian analysis (Bayes) and maximum likelihood (ML), using Toxoplasma gondii as outgroup. The numbers along branches indicate posterior probability (PP) and bootstrap probability (BP) values resulting from different analyses in the order: Bayes/ ML. Highly statistically supported nodes were BP≥85; PP≥0.98; while poorly statistically supported nodes were BP<60; PP<0.90.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079860.g002

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Figure 3. Inferred phylogenetic relationship among representative Babesia and Theileria species based on RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene sequences.

The RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene sequences were analyzed utilizing Bayesian analysis (Bayes) and maximum likelihood (ML), using Toxoplasma gondii as outgroup. The numbers along branches indicate posterior probability (PP) and bootstrap probability (BP) values resulting from different analyses in the order: Bayes/ ML. The accession numbers of the isolates used in the phylogenetic tree were listed in Table 1. High statistically supported nodes had BP≥85; PP≥0.98; while poorly statistically supported nodes had BP<60; PP<0.90.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079860.g003

Both Babesia and Theileria were polyphyletic with four major clades being defined (Figure 3). Theileria species were clustered within clade I expect T. equi, this clade was strongly supported by both ML and Bayesian analyses (PP > 0.95, BP > 85). Clade II consisted of only three representatives of a single species, T. equi/B. equi (PP = 1.00, BP = 98-100), for which the phylogenetic status is controversial [2,3]. In our analysis, this clade was strongly supported as a separated taxon to other Theileria spp. in the 18S rDNA tree (PP = 1.00), furthermore, there are poorly supported as a sister taxon to other Theileria spp. with ML (BP = 16) analysis of RPS8. However, there was relatively moderate statistical support for T. equi as a sister taxon to other Theileria spp. in the Bayesian analysis (PP = 0.91). Its position relative to Clade I and Clade III comprising the majority of Babesia sp. was unresolved, indicating the unclear evolutionary position of T. equi [4,14]. In both the trees, B. microti was placed at the root of piroplasms, thereby, separating it from the Babesia and Theileria clades (Figure 2, 3), which is consistent with Genome-wide phylogenetic analyses suggesting a new genus for the B. microti group of strains [6].

Overall topology of the two trees showed similar major branching orders, beginning with the outgroup Toxoplasma gondii followed by polyphyletic Theileria and Babesia species. However, phylogenetic reconstructions show that, although it is the least variable, the 18S rDNA tree is more resolved than the RPS8 tree in the nodes of some clades, For example, B. motasi isolates were clearly separated from the branch composed of B. ovata and B. bigemina with statistical support (PP=0.97, BP=64) in the 18S rDNA tree as well as there was moderate statistical support (PP=0.92, BP=78) in the RPS8 tree. These data indicate that 18S rDNA and RPS8 reliably distinguishes the deeper branches among some Babesia species. Within B. ovata isolates, the phylogenetic relationship between the B. ovata Zhangjiachuan isolate and the Wenchuan isolate is reliable in the RPS8 tree (PP=0.99, BP=84) as showed in the 18S rDNA tree (PP=1.00, BP=83). The RPS8 gene seems to be equal to the 18S rDNA in recognizing close lineages among some Babesia and Theileria species.

In the 18S rDNA tree, the phylogenetic relationship between B. bovis and other two Babesia species (Babesia sp. Xinjiang-2005 and Babesia sp. Kashi2) were poorly statistically supported (PP=0.87, BP=37) but the latter two Babesia species are closely related with high statistical support (PP=1.00, BP=95), which was not reconciled with morphological and biological data in previous studies (Figure 2) [19-24]. On the contrary, the phylogeny generated using the RPS8 gene did provide extremely strong support for the close sister-taxon relationship between B. bovis and the other two Babesia species (Babesia sp. Xinjiang-2005 and Babesia sp. Kashi2) (PP=1.00, BP=92) and unreliable sister-taxon relationship between Babesia sp. Xinjiang-2005 and Babesia sp. Kashi2 (PP=0.69, BP=50) (Figure 3). This is probably due to the use of a small dataset and two markers with different modes of evolution. Thus, for more accurate definition of certain Babesia isolates, it may be necessary to incorporate more markers that have differing evolutionary rates.

For Theileria species, clade I in the 18S rDNA tree was composed of two subclades, one subclade comprising T. annulata isolates and T. parva, with the other subclade consisting of T. uilenbergi, T. luwenshuni, T. sinensis isolates and T. sergenti. The phylogenetic status of two subclades resolved with strong statistical support (PP=1.00, BP=96). Furthermore, T. annulata and T. parva were closely related with a strong statistical support (PP=1.00, BP=100). T. luwenshuni formed a separate branch that is distantly related to T. sergenti and T. sinensis with statistical support (PP=0.76, BP=84) (Figure 3). T. uilenbergi formed a separate branch with statistical support (PP=0.89, BP=86). In the RPS8 tree, T. luwenshuni formed a separate branch with strong statistical support (PP=0.98, BP=76) [25,26].

In short, 18S rDNA as a slow-evolving marker more reliably distinguishes deeper branches among some Babesia species than the RPS8 gene. However, the RPS8 gene seems to be equal to the 18S rDNA in recognizing lineages among some closely related Babesia and Theileria species.

Combined analysis

A phylogenetic tree was reconstructed based on the combined dataset of the two markers. The resulting tree is presented in Figure 4. It is mostly reconciled with the phylogenetic trees constructed based on the RPS8 gene and 18S rDNA apart from the phylogenetic relationship of T. equi to other Theileria spp. The clade of T. equi was strongly supported as sister taxon to other Theileria spp. with ML (BP=97) analysis of the combined dataset of the two markers. However, the phylogenetic tree constructed based on the combined dataset of the two markers is not reliable with poor statistical support (Data not shown).

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Figure 4. Inferred phylogenetic relationship among representative Babesia and Theileria species based on the combined data of 18S rDNA and RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene sequences.

The combined data of 18S rDNA and RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene sequences were analyzed utilizing maximum likelihood (ML), using Toxoplasma gondii as outgroup. The numbers along branches indicate bootstrap probability (BP) values. The accession numbers of the isolates used in the phylogenetic tree were listed in Table 1. High statistically supported nodes had BP≥85; while poorly statistically supported nodes had BP<60.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079860.g004

Ethics statement

This study was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. All sheep and calves, were handled in accordance with good animal practices required by the Animal Ethics Procedures and Guidelines of the People's Republic of China.

Animals

All sheep and calves were purchased from a Babesia and Theileria-free area and maintained in an isolated stable. All sheep and calves were splenectomized and treated with antibiotics to promote the healing of wounds one month before the study. During this time, blood films were taken weekly from the ears of the sheep and calves to be examined by Giemsa stain for the presence of haemoprotozoan parasites. The experimental animals were tested by PCR with the universal primers for Babesia and Theileria species based on the 18S rDNA sequences prior to use to ensure that they were free of hemoparasites. After collecting blood containing parasites, the experimental animals were treated with anti-piroplasmosis drug and they were rehabilitated.

Parasite species

The isolates used in this study are listed in Table 1. Babesia bovis (Shanxian and Lushi) [27], B. bigemina (Kunming and Lushi) [28], B. major (Yili) [29], B. ovata (Wenchuan and Lushi and Zhangjiachuan) [30,31,32], Babesia sp. Kashi2 (Kashi) [24], B. motasi (Ningxian and Tianzhu and Lintan) [33,34], Babesia sp Xingjiang-2005 (Kashi) [21], Theileria annulata (Xingjiang and Ningxia and Shanmenxia) [30,35], T. sergenti (Lushi) [36], T. sinensis (Weiyuan and Lintan and Lintao) [37,38], T. uilenbergi (Longde) [26], T. luwenshuni (Ningxian) [26], T. equi (Zhaoyuan) [39]. The reference parasite species are as follows: T. annulata (Ankara strain) [40], T. orientalis (Shintoku strain) [41], T. equi (USDA strain) [5], T. parva (Muguga strain) [42], B. microti (RI isolate) [6], Toxoplasma gondii (ME49 strain) [43], B. bovis (T2Bo strain) [44].

DNA extraction

Sheep and calves were infected intravenously with 15 ml of cryopreserved infected blood stock of these Babesia and Theileria isolates. Daily post-infection rectal temperatures were measured to monitor for disease and blood smears were examined to monitor for presence of piroplasms. When the parasitemia reached more than 5% of whole blood, blood was collected into heparinised tubes. Parasite DNA was isolated using a genomic DNA Purification Kit (Gentra, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The amount of DNA isolated was assessed spectro-photometrically. Control DNA was isolated from venous blood of uninfected sheep and calves.

PCR, cloning, and DNA sequencing

The partial RPS8 gene was amplified from the genomic DNA extracted from each sample except Babesia microti by conventional PCR using forward primer 5’- ATGGGTATT(A/C)TCA(G/T/)C(A)GT(C/G)GAC(T)AG-3’ and reverse primer 5’- GCGTTTCTTCTTA(G)TCCATACG -3’. The reaction mixture consisted of 10×PCR buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 200 mM each deoxynucleotide triphosphate, 40 pmol each primer, 1.5 U of Taq polymerase (Takara) and approximately 10 ng of DNA, in a final volume of 50 ml. Each PCR consisted of 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 45 s, annealing at 52°C for 60 s, and extension at 72°C for 60 s; an initial denaturation step consisting of incubation at 94°C for 5 min and a final extension step consisting of incubation at 72°C for 10 min was also included. After PCR amplification, the PCR fragment was cloned into the pGEM-T Easy vector (Promega) according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, At least two positive clones from each sample were sequenced by using ABI PRISMTM 377XL DNA sequencer (TaKaRa). All new data has been deposited in GenBank.

Bioinformatic study of genetic distances and phylogenetic analysis

Both ML and Bayesian approaches were used to evaluate each of the individual loci separately. The outgroup taxon Toxoplasma gondii was used for all loci. ML analyses were conducted with PhyML [45] as implemented within Geneious [46], using the best-fit models of nucleotide substitution detected by jModelTest. Support for nodes was estimated by analyzing 1000 bootstrap pseudoreplicates for each locus. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was conducted on the total dataset using MrBayes v3.1.2 [47]. Akaike information criterion was used to identify the most appropriate model of nucleotide substitution for the Bayesian analysis in the program MrModeltest v2.2, and the best-fit model determined by jModelTest for 18S and RPS8 was GTR with both a proportion of invariable sites (I) and variation among sites (G). The Bayesian analysis was run for 15,000,000 generations with phylogenies sampled every 1,000 generations, and values for the substitution model parameters were not defined a priori, but were treated as unknown variables with uniform priors. Resulting burn-in values (the point at which the model parameters and tree scores reached stationarity) were determined empirically by evaluating likelihood scores. The nucleotide distance matrices were created under a ML correction in MEGA 4.0. The extent of sequence disparity between specimens was calculated by averaging pairwise comparisons of sequence differences across all specimens [48].

The sequence data were also examined using Maximum likelihood analyses in PhyML [45]. The combined data of 18S rDNA and RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene sequences from Toxoplasma gondii was used as an outlier group. The phylogenetic trees were constructed based on the combined data of 18S rDNA and RPS8 (coding and non-coding regions) gene sequences from Theileria and Babesia species determined in our laboratory or obtained from the GenBank database.

The program Genescan for predicting the locations and exon-intron structures of genes in genomic sequences from a variety of organisms (http://genes.mit.edu/GENSCAN.html). The RPS8 deduced amino acid sequence was analyzed with the Expert Protein Analysis System (http://us.expasy.org/). Theoretical molecular weights and isoelectric point (pI) were determined using Peptide-Mass (http://us.expasy.org/tools/peptide-mass.html), and prediction of potential phosphorylation sites was carried out at the NetPhos website. Identification of other motifs was conducted using the Motif scan program (http://hits.isb-sib.ch/cgi-bin/PFSCAN).