Figures
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is mainly due to the Leishmania donovani complex. VL is endemic in many countries worldwide including East Africa and the Mediterranean region where the epidemiology is complex. Taxonomy of these pathogens is under controversy but there is a correlation between their genetic diversity and geographical origin. With steady increase in genome knowledge, RAPD is still a useful approach to identify and characterize novel DNA markers. Our aim was to identify and characterize polymorphic DNA markers in VL Leishmania parasites in diverse geographic regions using RAPD in order to constitute a pool of PCR targets having the potential to differentiate among the VL parasites. 100 different oligonucleotide decamers having arbitrary DNA sequences were screened for reproducible amplification and a selection of 28 was used to amplify DNA from 12 L. donovani, L. archibaldi and L. infantum strains having diverse origins. A total of 155 bands were amplified of which 60.65% appeared polymorphic. 7 out of 28 primers provided monomorphic patterns. Phenetic analysis allowed clustering the parasites according to their geographical origin. Differentially amplified bands were selected, among them 22 RAPD products were successfully cloned and sequenced. Bioinformatic analysis allowed mapping of the markers and sequences and priming sites analysis. This study was complemented with Southern-blot to confirm assignment of markers to the kDNA. The bioinformatic analysis identified 16 nuclear and 3 minicircle markers. Analysis of these markers highlighted polymorphisms at RAPD priming sites with mainly 5′ end transversions, and presence of inter– and intra– taxonomic complex sequence and microsatellites variations; a bias in transitions over transversions and indels between the different sequences compared is observed, which is however less marked between L. infantum and L. donovani. The study delivers a pool of well-documented polymorphic DNA markers, to develop molecular diagnostics assays to characterize and differentiate VL causing agents.
Citation: Mkada–Driss I, Lahmadi R, Chakroun AS, Talbi C, Guerbouj S, Driss M, et al. (2014) Screening and Characterization of RAPD Markers in Viscerotropic Leishmania Parasites. PLoS ONE 9(10): e109773. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109773
Editor: Joao Inacio, University of Brighton, United Kingdom
Received: July 4, 2014; Accepted: September 2, 2014; Published: October 14, 2014
Copyright: © 2014 Mkada-Driss et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: The study received support from the UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO special programme of research and training in tropical diseases, TDR (ID: A30380) and from the ministry of higher education and scientific research in Tunisia (LR00SP04 & LR11IPT04). The project was developed with the support of the South-South Initiative for Infectious Diseases of Poverty (SSI-IDP, www.ssi.tropika.net). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a vector borne parasitic disease that constitutes a major public health problem in many parts of the world; it is fatal if left untreated or not treated on time. VL is endemic in more than 60 countries with 90% of the 200,000–400,000 annual cases reported in 6 countries in Africa (Ethiopia and Sudan), Indian subcontinent (Bangladesh, India and Nepal) and Latin America (Brazil) [1]. Visceral leishmaniasis is also complicated following treatment by another form of disease, Post Kala Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis (PKDL) in India (10–20%) and East Africa (Sudan (30–50%)) with severe forms being more difficult to treat than VL [2]. Different etiological agents are known to be responsible for VL, belonging to the Leishmania donovani complex: L. donovani, L. infantum, L. chagasi (syn. L. infantum), and L. archibaldi [3]. In East Africa and India, VL has essentially an anthroponotic transmission; in other areas transmission involves (non human) mammalian reservoirs, mostly canids [4]. However in Sudan, different animals were found infected with VL pathogens [5], [6], [7]. While all these parasites cause VL, they have been also identified as causal agents of forms of cutaneous leishmaniasis in different parts of the world [8]–[15]. The transmission cycles of these cutaneous disease forms largely remain poorly elucidated.
Taxonomy of these parasites is a matter of controversy. L. infantum is considered as forming its own complex [16] or as being one of the only 2 species constituting the L. donovani complex [17]. DNA studies question its presence in Sudan (and East Africa) and hypothesize converged evolution of isoenzymes to explain the zymodeme classification of these parasites [18]. It is also agreed that L. chagasi is synonymous to L. infantum [19]. Ranking of L. archibaldi as a species is questioned by DNA analyses that propose to consider it as an L. donovani species [17], [18], [20], [21]. Nevertheless these parasites belong to a zymodeme that is exclusive to, and well present in Sudan and Ethiopia [12], [22], [23] and thus may contribute there to the higher prevalence and earlier observation of PKDL cases than in the Indian subcontinent.
Although in general at a country/region level, VL is associated to only one species, in some areas (e.g. East Africa, Middle East, China) these pathogens may co-exist [1], [23]. These species are difficult to differentiate in a single step [24], [25] and their differentiation is generally based on numerical taxonomy or population genetics using multiple markers (eg microsatellites; multilocus sequence analysis; random markers, etc) [18], [20], [21], [26], [27], [28]. Therefore, identification of DNA markers that could differentiate among the VL causing agents according to their taxonomy or eco-epidemiological or clinical features is highly relevant to disease control, epidemiological investigations and travel medicine.
Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) is a simple and rapid technique that does not require prior knowledge on the genomes to characterize organisms, using one randomly determined (usually a decamer) primer [29], [30]. It is used for genetic characterization of a range of organisms, plants, animals or microorganisms for diverse purposes [31]–[35], In case of Leishmania, taxonomy and typing were major applications [26], [36]–[38]. In the Old World, different levels of inter– or intra– specific discrimination of Leishmania parasites could be observed [38], which were supposed to be due to clustered organization of different kinds of repetitive motives [39]. Priming sites for amplification with the 10–mers could be either polymorphic among parasite isolates or unique to some of them, therefore leading to a differential amplification resulting in different levels of discrimination [38], [39]. It has been used alone or with other tools to investigate intra–taxonomic (complex, species, zymodeme) diversity of VL parasites [26], [40]–[42], which highlighted their diversity and their genetic differentiation according to their geographical origin. It proved also an effective method to obtain genetic markers to develop relevant Leishmania DNA assays [39], [43], [44]. Therefore, this technique appeared as an adequate tool for comparison of VL parasites from diverse geographical settings and the selection of DNA markers among differentially amplified bands, which may be relevant for the development of DNA assays for the differentiation of/among VL parasites. This approach was all the more justified in absence of thorough genome information as regards such parasites.
This study reports on the selection of 28 RAPD primers for the amplification of a panel of DNA from geographically diverse VL parasites and the characterization of 22 cloned and sequenced RAPD markers using the existing genome resources. The sequences were first compared to their hits on the available genomes of L. infantum and L. donovani, and then to the ones on L. major to annotate the markers as regards to their chromosomal assignment, genomic context, and content. In some cases, Southern blot analysis confirmed assignment of the DNA markers to Leishmania DNA, precisely to kDNA. The analysis confirmed occurrence of polymorphisms at the priming sites and within the markers and allows predicting potential of these markers as targets for DNA assays aiming at the characterization of viscerotropic Leishmania species.
Materials and Methods
Ethics statement
Parasite strains used in this study are from different geographical origins. Parasites from Tunisia (LV10 and Drep14, Table 1) were isolated for the diagnosis of patients having VL or CL in Tunisian hospitals [45], [46]. Strains from Sudan (MW9, MW26, MW106 and MW3, Table 1) belong to human parasite collections that were isolated in medical centers at diagnosis of VL, CL or PKDL patients during a previous study supported by TDR program. All these strains obtained to confirm the diagnosis of leishmaniasis patients in clinical settings were cryopreserved under anonymous codes. Parasite strains GEBRE1, JEDDAH-KA, H9, DEVI, LRC-L57 and ADDIS164 (Table 1) were kindly provided from the Leishmania reference center in Montpellier, France (Pr. Jean Pierre Dedet). This study who received the support of TDR program also received the approval of the ethical committees of the Institut Pasteur de Tunis, of the Ministry of Health in Sudan and the WHO (Geneva).
Parasites and DNA
Twelve Leishmania strains having different geographical origins belonging to L. infantum, L. donovani or L. archibaldi species according to their zymodeme were selected for the purpose of the study (Table 1). Among these, 5 L. donovani originating from Kenya, Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia and India and one L. archibaldi originating from Ethiopia were kindly provided by the Leishmania reference center of Montpellier (Pr. Jean Pierre Dedet); the others were obtained from human parasite collections in Sudan (N = 4) with two typed as L. archibaldi (MON-82) in Rome, or Tunisia (N = 2) that were typed at the Institut Pasteur d'Algérie (Dr. Zoubir Harrat) as L. infantum MON-24 and MON-80. Two isolates selected from field collections in Sudan, MW106 and MW3, were not typed by isoenzyme analyses but were assigned to L. infantum/L. donovani complex by DNA techniques. The parasites were cultured in RPMI 1640 supplemented with 15% fetal calf serum, 2 mM glutamine, 100 U/ml penicillin/50 U/ml streptomycine, at 22°C. The total DNAs were purified using phenol–chloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation [47]. Parasite species identification was performed on these DNA preparations using at least one DNA technique previously described [24], [27], [47].
RAPD primers and amplification
One hundred 10–mer primers corresponding to five randomly selected kits defined by Operon technologies (Qiagen, GmbH, Germany) (OP-AD, OP-AY, OP-U, OP-E, and OP-O) were commercially synthesized and used as primers in RAPD experiments. All primers used were resuspended in TE buffer, stored at −20°C, and 10 µM (10 pmol/µl) working solutions were prepared. These primers were screened over two independent amplification rounds on one or two L. archibaldi DNAs and 28 primers giving reproducible profiles were selected (Table S1). Subsequently stability of the profiles was inferred upon this screening step. The same person did the RAPD screening and amplification using a single protocol. The RAPD amplification protocol was as described previously [38]. In brief, RAPD amplifications were processed in 50 µl reactions containing 0.1 mM of each dNTP, 0.8 µM primer, 2.5 U Taq DNA polymerase (Promega–Biogene, Tunis, Tunisia), 1X buffer supplied with the enzyme, containing 1.5 mM MgCl2, and 20 ng genomic DNA. Amplification was processed in a MJ research PTC-150 Minicycler (MJ research, Inc., USA). The amplification started with a denaturation at 94°C for 5 minutes, then 45 cycles were run at 94°C for 1 minute, 36°C for 1 minute and 72°C for 2 minutes; and a final elongation was performed at 72°C for 8 minutes. The RAPD products were separated by 1.6% agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized under UV light after staining with ethidium bromide. Interpretation of the patterns was based on the presence or absence of amplified DNA bands. Different readers analyzed the gels and we used a conservative reading of the gels taking account of intense and faint bands.
Phenetic analyses of the RAPD results
The bands observed in the gels were scored as absent (0) or present (1); the analysis included all bands regardless of their relative intensity. As RAPD products are considered as dominant markers, similarity indexes according to Nei and Li (NLi) or Jaccard (Ji) were estimated using the MVSP software package (Multi Variate Statistical Package 3.1) [48], thus taking into account only the present bands. The distance matrix was used to establish the phenetic relationship and draw dendrograms using the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic means (UPGMA), also using the MVSP package.
Cloning and sequencing of RAPD bands
A selection of 65 differentially amplified bands among the 12 DNAs panel were cut from agarose gels, and purified using the Qiaquick Gel extraction kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the protocol provided by the supplier. In some instances, the bands were re-amplified using the corresponding RAPD primers before the purification step. The bands were cloned into the plasmid vector provided in the pMOSBlue Blunt Ended Cloning Kit (HVD-Amersham, Athens, Greece) following the manufacturer instructions. PCR colony using plasmid primers and agarose gel electrophoresis allowed screening for inserts having the same size than those aimed for the cloning. Only 22 bands generated with 9 RAPD markers were successfully cloned. Analysis of recombinant plasmids was performed by extracting plasmid DNA from small volume cultures grown overnight at 37°C by using the Qiaprep Spin plasmid kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). Sequencing of RAPD markers was performed using the BigDye Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing Kit (HVD-Amersham, Athens, Greece) using the T7 (5′ CTAATACGACTCACTATAGGG 3′) and U19 (5′ TTTTCCCAGTCACGACGT 3′) primers located on the plasmid. The automated sequencer ABI PRISM 3130 Genetic 177 Analyzer (Applied Biosystem, Foster City, CA, USA) was used to generate the electrophoregrams.
Southern blotting of genomic RFLP and PCR products
Southern blot analyses were performed by digesting 8 µg of DNA of 5 parasite strains representative of the L. major (MHOM/TN/90/FMH), L. archibaldi (MHOM/ET/72/GEBREI), L. donovani (MHOM/ET/67/HU3), L. tropica (MCAN/IN/71/DBKM), and L. infantum (MHOM/FR/78/LEM1163) species with 50–100 units EcoRI, PstI, HindIII or XhoI (HVD-Amersham, Athens, Greece) restriction enzymes, as previously described [42]. Fragments were separated on 1% agarose gel overnight and transferred to Hybond N+ nylon membrane (HVD, Athens, Greece) as previously described [47]. Some inserts were sequentially used as probes upon labeling with α32P dCTP (HVD-Amersham, Athens, Greece) using the Megaprime DNA labeling kit (HVD-Amersham, Greece). Hybridization and dehybridization were done as previously described [47]. Hybridization patterns were obtained upon exposure of the blots to autoradioagraphic films (Kodack XAR5 and XLS films, HVD Amersham, Greece). Absence of signals on the blots upon dehybridization was also confirmed by autoradiography. In order to confirm the minicircle origin of the 3 markers M106/200/OAPY9, LEM536/320/OPAY8 and LEM496/300/OPAD17, total DNAs extracted from 5 strains representative of the species L. major, L. infantum and L. donovani were amplified in 3 identical reaction conditions with the Kinetoplast specific primers AJS81 (5′ GGGGTTGGTGTAAAATAGGGCCGG 3′) and DBY (5′ CCAGTTTCCCGCCCCGGAG 3′) as previously described [10], [11]. PCR products of each set of reaction were separated on different 1.4% agarose gels and the 3 gels were transferred to Hybond N+ Nylon membrane. The 3 cloned markers were individually labeled with α32P dCTP and used to hybridize one of the 3 membranes. Results were analyzed by autoradiography and hybridization profiles were compared to the results on agarose gels.
Bioinformatic analyses
Plasmid sequences were manually removed from each insert sequence generated. These sequences were then submitted to BLAST analysis for homology searches on a local bioinformatics toolbox [49] constituted by updated versions of the different L. major, L. infantum, and L. donovani genomes downloaded from the Sanger site (http://www.sanger.ac.uk/) and a set of bioinformatics programs. We used the Artemis [50], ACT [51] and ClustalW [52] software for annotation, visualization of multilevel comparison of the sequences to the genomic hits, and multiple sequence alignment, respectively. Sequences were also compared to their corresponding hits on the genomes as regards point mutations or indels using a homemade script (Mutation checkup); presence of microsatellites was screened using a script (Misa cluster) developed based on Misa program [53]. Simple sequence repeats were considered as microsatellites when the number of repeats was ≥10 for mononucleotide motives, ≥6 for dinucleotide motives, ≥4 for trinucleotide motives, and ≥3 for tetra and pentanucleotide motives [54]. Imperfect microsatellites correspond to imperfect repeat sequences (eg: (T)6(TG)6C(TG)7*). The sequences of the markers were submitted to GeneBank under the accession numbers reported in Table 2.
Results
RAPD analysis of a panel of 12 Leishmania donovani/Leishmania infantum complex parasites highlights their clustering according to geographical region
A selection of 12 DNAs corresponding to Leishmania strains originating from East Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia, and Kenya), India and North Africa (Tunisia) were analyzed by RAPD using 28 decamer primers. According to the primer, the number of amplified bands varied from 1 to 11. The patterns obtained included bands having high intensity and others that were faint or less intense. Only 7 primers provided monomorphic profiles. Twenty–one primers generated RAPD products that allowed different levels of taxonomic differentiation. Figure 1 illustrates examples of such profiles. With OP-O7 primer, the RAPD generated monomorphic products (Figure 1A) while OP-O13 primer generated 3 polymorphic profiles; a first one shared by L. archibaldi and L. infantum parasites and the 2 others corresponding to L. donovani strains (Figure 1B).
Laboratory codes of the strains are indicated for each lane. SD: Sudan; TN: Tunisia; M: 100 bp DNA size marker. Indicated sizes are in bp.
A total of 155 bands were amplified of which 94 appeared polymorphic (60.65%). Nei and Li similarity indexes (NLi) were estimated and the UPGMA tree obtained highlighted the phenetic relationships between parasites that were clustered according to assignment to species and/or to geographical origins (Figure S1). The range of similarity values (0.772–0.991) indicated very close relationships. However, L. infantum and L. archibaldi (with the untyped Sudanese parasites) constituted 2 different clusters that grouped together. The Sudanese parasites were differentiated from the Ethiopian strain in the L. archibaldi cluster. On this tree, a second group of parasites comprised 2 clusters corresponding to L. donovani parasites from Ethiopia and Saudi Arabia on one hand, and Kenya and India on the other (Figure S1). The highest similarity (NLi>0.9) was observed among the Sudanese strains and among the 3 East African L. donovani strains, and the lowest ones (0.77<NLi<0.8) were between the L. infantum and L. donovani strains or between some L. archibaldi and the Indian L. donovani strains (Table S2). This clustering was conserved with the Jaccard's coefficient (data not shown). When we reduced the dataset to the profiles obtained with the 9 primers that amplified the 22 cloned RAPD bands (here reported), the dendrogram still highlighted a similar clustering of the parasites according to their geographical origin but the relationship of the clusters into taxa was different; similarity values were still high (Figure 2). The L. infantum parasites constituted a group on their own. The L. archibaldi and Sudanese parasites formed a cluster that grouped together with the two clusters of L. donovani parasites, one comprising the strains from Saudi Arabia and Ethiopia, and the other one those from Kenya or India. However, the L. archibaldi/Sudan group of parasites was closer to the Ethiopian (0.811<NLi<0.833) and Arabic (0.831<NLi<0.853) strains than to the Kenyan (0.759<NLi<0.861) or Indian (0.785<NLi<0.805) ones (Table S3).
Species assignment according to isoenzyme analysis, zymodeme (MON for Montpellier) when available, and country of origin are indicated. ET: Ethiopia; SA: Saudi Arabia; IN: India; KE: Kenya; SD: Sudan; TN: Tunisia.
Cloning and sequence analysis of a selection of 22 RAPD products identified 16 nuclear and 3 minicircle markers
Twenty–two differentially amplified fragments were cloned, sequenced and analyzed in silico. These 22 inserts corresponded to 19 different DNA sequences, due to redundancy among the fragments cloned (same size fragments cloned from different DNAs having similar profiles). BLAST analysis allowed identification of significant matching hits (coverage percent>90%; homology percent>80%; e– values <10−6) on the L. infantum and L. donovani reference genomes in 16 cases, which allowed assigning them to 11 chromosomes and mapping them without ambiguities in similar locations in both species (Table 2). Ten of the 11 chromosomes had a large or medium size. 15 markers out of these 16 matched one genomic hit; in case of the marker L1005/320/OPAY8, 3 hits were obtained on L. infantum and only one on L. donovani. In addition, the chromosomes 36, 30 and 20 had each 2 different markers (6 in total), while 3 markers were identified on chromosome 32. With the exception of one sequence (M106/950/OPAD17), these markers were also conserved in L. major with homology ranging from 83% to 100% and coverage from 84% to 99%.
In case of 3 markers isolated from L. archibaldi (M106/200/OPAY9) or L. donovani (LEM536/320/OPAY8, LEM496/300/OPAD17), no significant hits were obtained and they could not be assigned to any chromosome or contig on any of the Leishmania species genomes (Table 2). To confirm the presence of these 3 unmapped and the M106/950/OPAD17 markers in Leishmania parasite genomes, we did a Southern Blot analysis. These markers were radiolabelled and used to probe Southern blots of digested genomic DNAs representative of L. infantum, L. tropica, L. major and L. donovani species. The RFLP patterns allowed assignment of the 3 unmapped sequences to kinetoplast DNA; typical hybridization patterns were revealed with signals at 700 bp and 500 bp that were very similar for each genomic DNA tested regardless of the restriction enzyme used. The profiles revealed by these 3 probes were also similar among themselves (Figure 3). This conclusion was also confirmed by positive hybridization of each of these probes to Southern transfers of kDNA minicircles amplified by PCR primers AJS83 & DBY [55] (data not shown).
The hybridization patterns were revealed by the different probes, A: LEM536/320/OPAY8, B: LEM496/300/OPAD17 and C: M106/200/OPAY9. Tested isolates correspond to L. major (FMH; L. maj), L. archibaldi (GEBRE; L. arch), L. donovani (HU3; L. don), L. tropica (DBKM; L. tro) and L. infantum (LEM1163; L. inf). EcoRI, PstI, HindIII, XhoI on top of the panel indicate the restriction enzyme used to digest the total Leishmania DNAs.
In case of the M106/950/OPAD17 marker, the genomic Southern blot analysis showed hybridization with L. donovani and L. infantum DNA but not with L. major as predicted by the homology and coverage percent (80% and 51%, respectively); it did react with L. tropica DNA (data not shown). This confirms the sequence as an L. donovani/L. infantum/L. tropica specific marker.
In silico analysis highlighted features of the RAPD markers and confirmed their potential as polymorphic DNA markers
Nucleotide sequence analysis of the 16 cloned nuclear RAPD markers, using Artemis and ACT software allowed their finer mapping on the respective chromosomes. Synteny was conserved across the species; 11 were in non-coding regions, 3 overlapped coding sequences and 2 were located within coding sequences (Table 2).
Alignment and comparison of the 16 nuclear markers with their respective hits on each of the species genome (L. donovani, L. infantum and L. major) using the Mutation checkup script highlighted inter-specific or intra-specific sequence variability with occurrence of transversions, transitions or indels. Pair wise comparison of the genomic hits in L. donovani or L. infantum versus L. major showed a predominance of transitions (60.67% & 60.39%) over transversions (31.24% & 31.33%) and indels (8.09% & 8.29%) (Table S4). However, the mutations observed comparing L. infantum and L. donovani hits were largely less abundant than in L. major and L. donovani or L. infantum comparisons with still a predominance of transitions (45.9%). However in contrast, these genomic sites in L. infantum and L. donovani had similar amounts of transversions (24.59%) and indels (29.51%) (Table S4).
Analysis with Misa cluster conducted on the 16 nuclear markers searched for microsatellites and mapped them on the sequence alignments of the markers and their corresponding genomic sites in L. infantum and L. donovani. Ten were found to contain at least one microsatellite repeat with two markers having 2 repeats, one having 4 repeats and another 5 (Table 3). So in total, 19 microsatellites and 2 imperfect ones were identified. Motifs repeated contained 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 nucleotides and belonged to 10 different sequence families (A/T; C; (CA/GT, AC/TG); CT; TA; GGA; GAG; CTTG; CTCC; CACCC); complex motifs associating 2 sequence families were observed in 2 cases (eg T9TG8). Interestingly, 12 of the 19 microsatellites and one of the imperfect microsatellites were polymorphic among the 3 sets of compared sequences with differences in the number of repeats in most cases. In one case a mutation within the motif created a complex microsatellite in L. donovani.
Comparison of the 3 sets of sequences with the hits on L. major showed that out of the 19 microsatellites, 15 were shared between the 3 species. Among them in L. major, 5 corresponded to imperfect repeats and in 2 cases the microsatellites were found complex. This species had in addition 3 unique microsatellites with one being an association of two contiguous microsatellites. In one case, the microsatellite in L. major corresponded to simple sequence repeats in the viscerotropic strains.
This brings the total number of microsatellites identified through the RAPD markers in the 4 sets of sequences to 13 sequence families (A/T; C/G; (CA/GT, AC/TG), CT; TA; GGA; GAG; AAC; CTTG; CTCC; GGGA; CACCC; CTCTCG). The sequence of the kDNA markers did not show any microsatellite repeat.
Analysis of the primer annealing sites highlighted potential mechanisms underlying differential RAPD amplification
Mismatches were observed between the borders of the nuclear markers and their genomic hits in all cases. This prompted analysis of the RAPD priming sites. The nucleotide sequences of primer annealing sites were deduced through alignment of the RAPD primers to the corresponding sites of the markers in L. donovani and L. infantum genomes. For the 16 nuclear markers, amplified by 9 primers, 77 and 78 mismatches were observed in the RAPD priming sites with these 2 genomes, respectively (Table S5). The priming sites comprised 1 to 3 mutations; in 3 occurrences such mismatches were only observed in one of the 2 priming sites (Table S5). The analysis was further extended, mapping and characterizing the mutations in the priming sites on the 5′ or 3′ parts of the primers here defined as the first 4 and the last 6 nucleotides, respectively [56]. Transversions, transitions and indels accounted for 53.25%–55.12%, 29.49%–31.17% and 8.97%–10.39% of all the mutations, respectively (Table 4). Interestingly, in both species, there was a predominance of mismatches at the 5′ ends (66.66%–68.83%) of the primers than at their 3′ ends (33.33%–31.17%) involving mainly transversions (39.74%–41.56%). In order to assess whether this observation corresponds to a feature unique to the L. donovani or L. infantum species, the same analysis was done on the corresponding genomic hits in L. major genome. This allowed to conclude that the mutations identified also follow the same trend observed, although the proportion of mutations in the 5′ ends were lower (55.92%) and those in the 3′ ends higher (44.09%) than those observed with L. donovani and L. infantum (Table 4).
Discussion
Polymorphic Leishmania markers correlated to clinical or eco-epidemiological features of Leishmania parasites are needed for better assessment and monitoring of the disease in endemic areas and transmission foci [57]. They are also relevant to disease control and travel medicine. Parasites causing visceral leishmaniasis belong to at least two species L. donovani and L. infantum for which genetically differentiated populations have been described in correlation to their geographical origins using different kinds of markers such as gp63 surface antigen–coding genes [27], metabolic enzyme genes [58] or neutral microsatellite sequences [28], [59]. In absence of thorough knowledge on genomes, RAPD remains useful for genetic characterization of a range of organisms including Leishmania [29]–[35], [60]. Notably, RAPD genotyping constituted a way of screening bacterial clones or strains to proceed in a cost effective way to NGS analysis of the genomes which in return informed on genomic differences underlying discriminating amplification profiles (genotypes) and confirmed interest of this technique [34], [35]. NGS data analysis also requires skilled personnel in bioinformatics and is time consuming [34].
In case of Leishmania, it was mainly used for instance for their taxonomic status elucidation [37] or identification [36], [38] or for their differentiation according to ecological features highlighting correlation to geographical origin [40], [41], [42], [61], or according to cycle components diversity [61]. RAPD also constitutes a powerful mean for the identification of PCR targets, notably for the development of selective or polymorphism specific PCR assays [39]. It has been used to investigate epidemiology of leishmaniasis in diverse settings in addition to other characterization methods [62], [63]. This tool also constitutes powerful means to identify PCR targets for selective or specific amplification of Leishmania parasites [39], [44]. Genomes of a limited number of Leishmania species and strains are so far available [64]–, so there is for instance little information available on parasites encountered in Africa. Therefore, we associated use of RAPD to the available genome resources to select and characterize by bioinformatics potentially polymorphic markers among VL causing parasites in Africa and elsewhere. Polymorphic potential was inferred from selection of differentially amplified bands, comparisons across the available genomes and annotations.
In a first step during this study, we screened 100 decamer primers over 2 independent rounds of amplifications of one or two sudanese DNAs to select 28 primers generating reproducible amplification profiles. Then, we used this set of 28 decamer primers, not reported to our knowledge elsewhere for Leishmania parasites, to screen for polymorphic (differentially amplified) RAPD bands using a panel of 12 parasite strains having different geographical origins in Africa and Asia that were obtained from VL, CL or PKDL cases and assigned to the L. infantum, L. archibaldi or L. donovani species according to their zymodeme. Among a total of 155 amplified bands with this novel set of primers, around 61% of them were polymorphic. Although the number of strains in this study is limited, the results observed corroborate previous published observations. The UPGMA trees built using similarity indexes computed from the profiles obtained with all the primers or a subset of them clearly differentiated the strains identified as L. donovani from the L. infantum ones, in agreement with the classification of these two species as separate taxonomical entities [16], [17]. In particular L. infantum strains belonging to the MON–24 and MON–80 zymodemes were on separate branches from the L. donovani strains [22]. In case of the L. archibaldi parasites used in this work, the 28 primers clustered them with the L. infantum strains while using a reduced set of 9 primers (that were used to amplify the cloned fragments), they clustered with the L. donovani strains. RAPD profiles were according to the primers either more similar to L. infantum or more similar to L. donovani. On cladograms of viscerotropic Leishmania, zymodemes attributed to the L. archibaldi species form a clade that has intermediate position between L. infantum and L. donovani [22]. Different studies using different types of markers: microsatellites [18], [28]; genes coding for metabolic enzymes [58] or genes encoding for the Glycoprotein 63 [68] have questioned the taxonomic ranking of L. archibaldi as a species. It was hypothesized that in Sudan (East Africa) assignment of Leishmania strains to the L. archibaldi or L. infantum species according to isoenzyme data [22] would indeed result from convergent evolution [18]. Our results tend to confirm questioning of the taxonomic status of L. archibaldi. In fact, relatedness of these organisms to the L. infantum species will need to be confirmed by more extensive studies comparing for instance the genomes of more extended numbers of African parasites including L. infantum from North Africa. One explanation could be the relatedness of the L. infantum strains under study to other African viscerotropic Leishmania, like L. donovani. Indeed, studies using multilocus microsatellite typing of 98 L. infantum isolates from different New World foci compared to 308 L. infantum and 20 L. donovani strains from Old World countries, including Tunisia and Algeria, have shown two main L. infantum sub-populations, assigned as MON–1 and non–MON–1 [69]. Interestingly, North African non MON-1 L. infantum strains clustered with all the L. donovani strains used, their genetic relatedness [69].
Our study showed that the non–typed Sudanese strains had similar profiles to the L. archibaldi strains from Sudan or Ethiopia with all primers tested. Although taxonomic relationships of this group of parasites with the other strains varied according to the primers (Figure 2 & Figure S1), consistent observations were made as regards the African L. donovani strains, with the Kenyan strains (H9 & LRC-L57) being more similar to the Indian than to the Ethiopian (ADDIS 164) strains. This later one was found more related to the Arabian strain (JEDDAH-KA). Actually, this is in agreement with other studies that had in common a similar set (all or some of these and other strains from the same geographical origins) of L. donovani and L. archibaldi (GEBRE1) strains and which targeted the intergenic region of gp63 genes [20], ribosomal DNA internal spacer sequences [21] and multilocus microsatellite typing [18], [28], to investigate intraspecific polymorphisms of the L. donovani complex. Indeed, our results obtained on a limited number of strains are congruent to these studies that have concluded to a genetic differentiation of the strains according to their geographical origin; similar genetic relationship among these strains were also observed.
Although use of RAPD has been associated to warnings for cautious genetic interpretations because of misleading heterogeneous content or lack of reproducibility [36], [70], RAPD products constitute markers of choice for a range of applications. In case of Leishmania, bands consistently amplified were used to identify species [38] or to develop assays for analyzing intra–taxonomic genetic diversity [43] or for species– specific/selective amplification [39], [44]. Here, in absence of genome data of VL causing parasites having different geographical origins, our main objective was to use RAPD as a screening technique and a geographically diverse set of viscerotropic parasites to target bands that are differentially amplified among these parasites to constitute a pool of markers for the development of simple PCR assays for the characterization of viscerotropic Leishmania parasites. A selection of such bands have been extracted from the agarose gels, cloned and sequenced. Two cautions were taken, to avoid issues related to reproducibility, only the primers generating reproducible profiles were selected and only one person did the RAPD reactions, using the same protocol, the same reagents (batch and brand) and the same PCR machine. To minimize cloning artifacts, we only selected inserts that had the size expected from the RAPD gels. A total of 22 clones and 19 different sequences have been obtained which were confirmed to belong to the Leishmania parasite genomes either by homology searches or by experimental Southern analysis. Extent of coverage and homology percent against L. donovani and L. infantum genomes indicated perfect matches with the genomic sites. In only one exception, the cloned fragment (D14/1300/OPAY8) contained 2 perfect repeats of a fragment that matched with the 3′ extremity of the LinJ.29.1110 gene. This likely corresponds to an artefactual event that was possibly generated during the RAPD reaction, as described elsewhere [70], [71]. Interestingly, nuclear and kinetoplastic markers were identified in a proportion (15.79% of kDNA) that is within the range described for these genomes in Kinetoplastids (∼5–20%) [72].
All nuclear markers were precisely mapped on the databases while no homologous sequences to the kinetoplast markers were found. This indicates they likely belong to variable regions of minicircles that are so far not described. In addition all (but one) of the nuclear markers were found mapping on medium to large sized chromosomes. Similar observations were made in previous studies where the analyzed markers were also found located on large chromosomes [24], [43]. Four large chromosomes were found to contain 7 markers in total. One explanation could be the polyploidy associated to some chromosomes or the occurrence of amplified DNA arrays [66] that would result in increasing the chances of the primers to anneal to them. Other ones could be linked to the complex molecular mechanisms during RAPD amplification [71] or to a biased distribution of the priming sites. It was previously hypothesized that differences at the annealing sites are responsible for the species–specific amplification of DNA fragments in Leishmania that are otherwise conserved across different Leishmania species [39]. Here, all the cloned nuclear DNA fragments were shown to match sequences that had polymorphic priming sites. In addition, it was observed that mutations were more important at the 5′ end than at the 3′ end of these sites, which is in agreement with previous studies [56]. These authors proposed that a minimum of 8 nucleotides in a decamer is needed to ensure amplification while perfect matches at the 3′end are not necessary [56]. Another study confirmed these observations and identified in addition mutations at the 3′ end of the priming site as a cause for differential RAPD amplification [35]. In our case, the mutations' number ranged from 0 to 8, and in 14 markers out of 16 we have found that both extremities were polymorphic (Table S5). This strengthens the idea that the primers target polymorphic annealing sites resulting in differential amplification of the bands. Mutations at the priming sites were found to correspond predominantly to transversions. However, the mutations within the RAPD amplified genomic sites corresponded in majority to transitions. All this would indicate that mechanisms underlying differential RAPD amplification among the viscerotropic parasites include primer annealing site variations, and a likely variation in their copy number and/or in their distribution. Of the 16 nuclear markers analyzed, 5 were located either within (2) or overlapped (3) a coding sequence. The remaining ones were in non–coding regions. Interestingly, 10 markers were found to contain single or associated microsatellite repeats. In total, 10 families were identified in the marker or their genomic hits in L. infantum and L. donovani genomes. Comparison of these sequences further highlighted occurrence of modest expansion of the repeated motives, mutations in the motives that generated imperfect microsatellites or complex association of repeated motives. This supports hypothesis of a preference for the amplification of non–coding polymorphic DNA sequences in relation to clustered organization of priming sites and repetitive sequences [39]. It also informs on evolutionary divergence between L. major and L. donovani/L. infantum in one hand, and between L. infantum and L. donovani on the other. Closer relationship is highlighted between these two species than with L. major, with a trend in having less transitions and transversions and more indels in the RAPD fragments than observed between these species and L. major. Observation of microsatellites that are unique to L. major or to L. donovani/L. infantum is in agreement with previous studies [59]. All this allows predicting potential of these differentially amplified polymorphic markers as useful tools for characterization of viscerotropic parasites. To confirm this hypothesis, we targeted some of these markers to develop in a following study simple assays for differentiation of viscerotropic parasites according to their taxonomy or geographical origin.
Conclusion
This study associated use of the RAPD technique to public Leishmania genome resources to select, clone and characterize in silico DNA markers that are differentially amplified among a panel of geographically diverse viscerotropic Leishmania. RAPD analysis on this limited panel highlighted polymorphic profiles and was congruent with previous studies emphasizing on close relationships of the parasites, and their clustering according to geographical origin, with parasites from Ethiopia and Sudan being closer between themselves than with parasites from Kenya or India. This work delivers a pool of 19 characterized polymorphic DNA markers that were differentially amplified among these diverse parasites. Mutations at the priming sites and differential representation within these geographically diverse strains seem to underlie their amplification. These markers are also associated to inter– and intra– taxonomic complex sequence and microsatellites variations. They will constitute a pool of targets for development of PCR based assays and could be used for the identification and characterization of viscerotropic Leishmania parasites.
Supporting Information
Figure S1.
UPGMA dendrogram obtained using Nei and Li similarity indexes of the panel of geographically diverse strains using the RAPD profiles generated with the 28 RAPD primers selected for this study.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109773.s001
(DOCX)
Table S1.
Nucleotide sequences of the 28 RAPD primers used in the present study.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109773.s002
(DOCX)
Table S2.
Similarity index (Nei and Li, 1979) of the parasites using the RAPD profiles obtained with the 28 RAPD primers selected.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109773.s003
(DOCX)
Table S3.
Similarity index (Nei and Li, 1979) of the parasites using the RAPD profiles obtained with a selection of 9 RAPD primers used to amplify the cloned RAPD markers.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109773.s004
(DOCX)
Table S4.
Comparative inter–species analysis of mutations within the genomic hits.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109773.s005
(DOCX)
Table S5.
Comparative inter–species analysis of mutations within the priming sites.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109773.s006
(DOCX)
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: IMD MMM IG. Performed the experiments: IMD RL CT SG. Analyzed the data: IMD ASC CT SG MD EC IG. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: IMD RL ASC CT SG MD EME EC MMM IG. Wrote the paper: IMD SG IG.
References
- 1. Alvar J, Vélez ID, Bern C, Herrero M, Desjeux P, et al. (2012) WHO Leishmaniasis Control Team. Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS One 7: e35671.
- 2. Zijlstra EE, Musa AM, Khalil EA, el-Hassan IM, el-Hassan AM (2003) Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Lancet Infect Dis 3: 87–98.
- 3.
Lainson R, Shaw JJ (1987) Evolution, classification, and geographical distribution, p 1–120. In W. Peters and R. Killick- Kendrick (ed.), The leishmaniases in biology and epidemiology, vol. 1. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
- 4. Ready PD (2014) Epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis. Clin Epidemiol 6: 147–154.
- 5. Elnaiem DA, Hassan MM, Maingon R, Nureldin GH, Mekawi AM, et al. (2001) The Egyptian mongoose, Herpestes ichneumon, is a possible reservoir of visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan. Parasitology 122: 531–536.
- 6. Dereure J, El-Safi SH, Bucheton B, Boni M, Kheir MM, et al. (2003) Visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan: parasite identification in humans and dogs; host-parasite relationships. Microbes Infect 5: 1103–1108.
- 7. Hassan MM, Osman OF, El-Raba'a FM, Schallig HD, Elnaiem DE (2009) Role of the domestic dog as a reservoir host of Leishmania donovani in eastern Sudan. Parasit Vectors 2: 26.
- 8. Harrat Z, Pratlong F, Belazzoug S, Dereure J, Deniau M (1996) Leishmania infantum and Leishmania major in Algeria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90: 625–629.
- 9. Belli A, García D, Palacios X, Rodriguez B, Valle S, et al. (1999) Widespread atypical cutaneous Leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (L.) chagasi in Nicaragua. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61: 380–385.
- 10. BenSaid M, Guerbouj S, Saghrouni F, Fathallah-Mili A, Guizani I (2006) Occurrence of Leishmania infantum cutaneous leishmaniasis in central Tunisia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100: 521–526.
- 11. Guerbouj S, Guizani I, De Doncker S, Dujardin JC, Nuwayri-Salti N (2001) Identification of Lebanese dermotropic putative Leishmania archibaldi isolates by gp63 PCR-RFLP. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95: 687–688.
- 12. Elamin EM, Guizani I, Guerbouj S, Gramiccia M, El Hassan AM, et al. (2008) Identification of Leishmania donovani as a cause of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102: 54–57.
- 13. Karunaweera ND, Pratlong F, Siriwardane HV, Ihalamulla RL, Dedet JP (2003) Sri Lankan cutaneous leishmaniasis is caused by Leishmania donovani zymodeme MON-37. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97: 380–381.
- 14. Sharma NL, Mahajan VK, Negi AK (2005) Epidemiology of a new focus of localized cutaneous leishmaniasis in Himachal Pradesh. J Commun Dis 37: 275–279.
- 15. De Lima H, Rodríguez N, Feliciangeli MD, Barrios MA, Sosa A, et al. (2009) Cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania chagasi/L. infantum in an endemic area of Guarico State, Venezuela. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 103: 721–726.
- 16. Rioux JA, Lanotte G, Serres E, Pratlong F, Bastien P, et al. (1990) Taxonomy of Leishmania. Use of isoenzymes. Suggestions for a new classification. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 65: 111–125.
- 17. Lukes J, Mauricio IL, Schönian G, Dujardin JC, Soteriadou K, et al. (2007) Evolutionary and geographical history of the Leishmania donovani complex with a revision of current taxonomy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104: 9375–9380.
- 18. Jamjoom MB, Ashford RW, Bates PA, Chance ML, Kemp SJ, et al. (2004) Leishmania donovani is the only cause of visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa; previous descriptions of L. infantum and "L. archibaldi" from this region are a consequence of convergent evolution in the isoenzyme data. Parasitology. 129: 399–409.
- 19. Maurício IL, Stothard JR, Miles MA (2000) The strange case of Leishmania chagasi. Parasitol Today 16: 188–189.
- 20. Mauricio IL, Gaunt MW, Stothard JR, Miles MA (2001) Genetic typing and phylogeny of the Leishmania donovani complex by restriction analysis of PCR amplified gp63 intergenic regions. Parasitology 122: 393–403.
- 21. Kuhls K, Mauricio IL, Pratlong F, Presber W, Schönian G (2005) Analysis of ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer sequences of the Leishmania donovani complex. Microbes Infect 7: 1224–1234.
- 22. Pratlong F, Dereure J, Bucheton B, El-Saf S, Dessein A, et al. (2001) Sudan: the possible original focus of visceral leishmaniasis. Parasitology 122: 599–605.
- 23. Pratlong F, Lami P, Ravel C, Balard Y, Dereure J, et al. (2013) Geographical distribution and epidemiological features of Old World Leishmania infantum and Leishmania donovani foci, based on the isoenzyme analysis of 2277 strains. Parasitology 140: 423–434.
- 24. Van Eys GJ, Guizani I, Ligthart GS, Dellagi K (1991) A nuclear DNA probe for the identification of strains within the Leishmania donovani complex. Exp Parasitol 72: 459–463.
- 25. Chocholová E, Jirků M, Lukes J (2008) A diagnostic assay based on variable intergenic region distinguishes between Leishmania donovani and Leishmania infantum. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 55: 75–78.
- 26. Mauricio IL, Howard MK, Stothard JR, Miles MA (1999) Genomic diversity in the Leishmania donovani complex. Parasitology 119: 237–246.
- 27. Guerbouj S, Victoir K, Guizani I, Seridi N, Nuwayri-Salti N, et al. (2001) Gp63 gene polymorphism and population structure of Leishmania donovani complex: influence of the host selection pressure? Parasitology 1: 25–35.
- 28. Kuhls K, Keilonat L, Ochsenreither S, Schaar M, Schweynoch C, et al. (2007) Multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) reveals genetically isolated populations between and within the main endemic regions of visceral leishmaniasis. Microbes Infect 9: 334–343.
- 29. Williams JG, Kubelik AR, Livak KJ, Rafalski JA, Tingey SV (1990) DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucleic Acids Res 18: 6531–6535.
- 30. Babu KN, Rajesh MK, Samsudeen K, Minoo D, Suraby EJ, et al. (2014) Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and derived techniques. Methods Mol Biol 1115: 191–209.
- 31. Mucciarelli M, Ferrazzini D, Belletti P (2014) Genetic Variability and Population Divergence in the Rare Fritillaria tubiformis subsp. moggridgei Rix (Liliaceae) as Revealed by RAPD Analysis. PLoS One. Jul 15 9(7): e101967.
- 32. Yuan G, Sun J, Li H, Fu G, Xu G, Li M, Zhang L, Fan X (2014) Identification of velvet antler by random amplified polymorphism DNA combined with non-gel sieving capillary electrophoresis. Mitochondrial DNA. Aug 8 1–7.
- 33. Paluchowska P, Tokarczyk M, Bogusz B, Skiba I (2014) Budak (2014) A. Molecular epidemiology of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata strains isolated from intensive care unit patients in Poland. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 109: 436–441.
- 34. Nielsen KL, Godfrey PA, Stegger M, Andersen PS, Feldgarden M, Frimodt-Møller N (2014) Selection of unique Escherichia coli clones by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD): Evaluation by whole genome sequencing. J Microbiol Methods 103: 101–103.
- 35. Dhakal R, Seale RB, Deeth HC, Craven H, Turner MS (2014) Draft genome comparison of representatives of the three dominant genotype groups of dairy Bacillus licheniformis strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 80: 3453–3462.
- 36. Noyes HA, Belli AA, Maingon R (1996) Appraisal of various random amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction primers for Leishmania identification. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55: 98–105.
- 37. Bañuls AL, Guerrini F, Le Pont F, Barrera C, Espinel I, et al. (1997) Evidence for hybridization by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis and random amplified polymorphic DNA between Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania panamensis/guyanensis in Ecuador. J Eukaryot Microbiol 44: 408–411.
- 38. Guizani I, Dellagi K, Ben Ismail R (2002) Random amplified polymorphic DNA technique for identification and differentiation of old world Leishmania species. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 152–156.
- 39. Hanafi R, Barhoumi M, Ali SB, Guizani I (2001) Molecular analyses of Old World Leishmania RAPD markers and development of a PCR assay selective for parasites of the Leishmania donovani species Complex. Exp Parasitol 98: 90–99.
- 40. Toledo A, Martín-Sánchez J, Pesson B, Sanchiz-Marín C, Morillas-Márquez F (2002) Genetic variability within the species Leishmania infantum by RAPD. A lack of correlation with zymodeme structure. Mol Biochem Parasitol 119: 257–264.
- 41. Zemanová E, Jirků M, Mauricio IL, Miles MA, Lukes J (2004) Genetic polymorphism within the Leishmania donovani complex: correlation with geographic origin. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70: 613–617.
- 42. Segatto M, Ribeiro LS, Costa DL, Costa CH, Oliveira MR, et al. (2012) Genetic diversity of Leishmania infantum field populations from Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 107: 39–47.
- 43. Lewin S, Schönian G, El Tai N, Oskam L, Bastien P, et al. (2002) Strain typing in Leishmania donovani by using sequence-confirmed amplified region analysis. Int J Parasitol 32: 1267–1276.
- 44. Martinez E, Alonso V, Quispe A, Thomas MC, Alonso R, et al. (2003) RAPD method useful for distinguishing Leishmania species: design of specific primers for L. braziliensis. Parasitology 127: 513–517.
- 45. Aoun K, Bouratbine A, Harrat Z, Guizani I, Mokni M, et al. (2000) Epidemiologic and parasitologic data concerning sporadic cutaneous leishmaniasis in northern Tunisia. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 93: 101–103.
- 46. Aoun K, Bouratbine A, Harrat Z, Belkaïd M, Bel Hadj Ali S (2001) Particular profile of the zymodemes of Leishmania infantum causing visceral leishmaniasis in Tunisia. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 94: 375–377.
- 47. Guizani I, Van Eys GJ, Ben Ismail R, Dellagi K (1994) Use of recombinant DNA probes for species identification of Old World Leishmania isolates. Am J Trop Med Hyg 50: 632–640.
- 48.
Kovach Wl (1999). MVSP–A Multivariate Statistical Package for Windows, version 3.1. Kovach Computing Services, Pentraeth, Wales, UK, 133.
- 49. Guizani I, Chakroun AS, Turki L, Kebaier H, et al. (2009) LBTx: A Tool Box for the Selection and Analysis of Potential Leishmania Target for Intervention and Disease Control. Conference abstracts, Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 9: 368–386.
- 50. Rutherford K, Parkhill J, Crook J, Horsnell T, Rice P, et al. (2000) Artemis: sequence visualization and annotation. Bioinformatics 16: 944–945.
- 51. Carver T, Berriman M, Tivey A, Patel C, Böhme U, et al. (2008) Artemis and ACT: viewing, annotating and comparing sequences stored in a relational database. Bioinformatics 23: 2672–2676.
- 52. Larkin MA, Blackshields G, Brown NP, Chenna R, McGettigan PA, et al. (2007) Clustal W and Clustal X version 2.0. Bioinformatics 23: 2947–2948.
- 53. Thiel T, Michalek W, Varshney RK, Graner A (2003) Exploiting EST database for the development and characterisation of gene derived SSR-markers in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Theoretical and Applied Genetics 106: 411–422.
- 54. Estoup A, Solignac M, Harry M, Cornuet JM (1993) Characterization of (GT)n and (CT)n microsatellites in two insect species: Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris. Nucleic Acids Res 21: 1427–1431.
- 55. Smyth AJ, Ghosh A, Hassan MQ, Basu D, De Bruijn MH, et al. (1992) Rapid and sensitive detection of Leishmania kinetoplast DNA from spleen and blood samples of kala-azar patients. Parasitology 2: 183–192.
- 56. Mori E, Liò P, Daly S, Damiani G, Perito B, et al. (1999) Molecular nature of RAPD markers from Haemophilus influenzae Rd genome. Res Microbiol 150: 83–93.
- 57. Cupolillo E, Brahim LR, Toaldo CB, de Oliveira-Neto MP, de Brito ME, et al. (2003) Genetic polymorphism and molecular epidemiology of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis from different hosts and geographic areas in Brazil. J Clin Microbiol 41: 3126–3132.
- 58. Zemanová E, Jirků M, Mauricio IL, Horák A, Miles MA, et al. (2007) The Leishmania donovani complex: genotypes of five metabolic enzymes (ICD, ME, MPI, G6PDH, and FH), new targets for multilocus sequence typing. Int J Parasitol 37: 149–160.
- 59. Jamjoom MB, Ashford RW, Bates PA, Kemp SJ, Noyes HA (2002) Towards a standard battery of microsatellite markers for the analysis of the Leishmania donovani complex. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 96: 265–270.
- 60.
Guerbouj S, Mkada–Driss I, Guizani I (2014) Molecular Tools for Understanding Eco-Epidemiology, Diversity and Pathogenesis of Leishmania Parasites, Leishmaniasis - Trends in Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment, Dr. David Claborn (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-1232-7, InTech, DOI: 10.5772/57510. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/leishmaniasis trends in epidemiology diagnosis and treatment/molecular tools for understanding eco epidemiology diversity and pathogenesis of Leishmania parasite.
- 61. Carvalho ML, de Andrade AS, Fontes CJ, Hueb M, de Oliveira Silva S, et al. (2006) Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis is the prevalent species infecting patients with tegumentary leishmaniasis from Mato Grosso State, Brazil. Acta Trop. 98: 277–285.
- 62. Manna M, Majumder HK, Sundar S, Bhaduri AN (2005) The molecular characterization of clinical isolates from Indian Kala-azar patients by MLEE and RAPD-PCR. Med Sci Monit 11: 220–227.
- 63. Mahmoudzadeh-Niknam H, Ajdary S, Riazi-Rad F, Mirzadegan E, Rezaeian A, et al. (2012) Molecular epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis and heterogeneity of Leishmania major strains in Iran. Trop Med Int Health 17: 1335–1344.
- 64. Ivens AC, Peacock CS, Worthey EA, Murphy L, Aggarwal G, et al. (2005) The genome of the kinetoplastid parasite, Leishmania major. Science 309: 436–442.
- 65. Peacock CS, Seeger K, Harris D, Murphy L, Ruiz JC, et al. (2007) Comparative genomic analysis of three Leishmania species that cause diverse human disease. Nat Genet 39: 839–847.
- 66. Rogers MB, Hilley JD, Dickens NJ, Wilkes J, Bates PA, et al. (2011) Chromosome and gene copy number variation allow major structural change between species and strains of Leishmania. Genome Res 21: 2129–2142.
- 67. Downing T, Imamura H, Decuypere S, Clark TG, Coombs GH, et al. (2011) Whole genome sequencing of multiple Leishmania donovani clinical isolates provides insights into population structure and mechanisms of drug resistance. Genome Res 21: 2143–2156.
- 68. Mauricio IL, Gaunt MW, Stothard JR, Miles MA (2007) Glycoprotein 63 (gp63) genes show gene conversion and reveal the evolution of Old World Leishmania. Int J Parasitol 37: 565–576.
- 69. Kuhls K, Alam MZ, Cupolillo E, Ferreira GE, Mauricio IL, et al. (2011) Comparative microsatellite typing of new world Leishmania infantum reveals low heterogeneity among populations and its recent old world origin. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e1155.
- 70. Rabouam C, Comes AM, Bretagnolle VV, Humbert JF, Periquet G, et al. (1999) Features of DNA fragments obtained by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) assays. Mol Ecol 8: 493–503.
- 71. Caetano-Anollés G (1993) Amplifying DNA with arbitrary oligonucleotide primers. PCR Methods Appl 2: 85–94.
- 72. Shapiro TA, Englund PT (1995) The structure and replication of kinetoplast DNA. Annu Rev Microbiol 49: 117–143.