Figures
Abstract
Background
Egyptian Arabian horses have been maintained in a state of genetic isolation for over a hundred years. There is only limited genetic proof that the studbook records of female lines of Egyptian Arabian pedigrees are reliable. This study characterized the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) signatures of 126 horses representing 14 matrilines in the Egyptian Agricultural Organization (EAO) horse-breeding program.
Findings
Analysis of the whole D-loop sequence yielded additional information compared to hypervariable region-1 (HVR1) analysis alone, with 42 polymorphic sites representing ten haplotypes compared to 16 polymorphic sites representing nine haplotypes, respectively. Most EAO haplotypes belonged to ancient haplogroups, suggesting origin from a wide geographical area over many thousands of years, although one haplotype was novel.
Conclusions
Historical families share haplotypes and some individuals from different strains belonged to the same haplogroup: the classical EAO strain designation is not equivalent to modern monophyletic matrilineal groups. Phylogenetic inference showed that the foundation mares of the historical haplotypes were highly likely to have the same haplotypes as the animals studied (p > 0.998 in all cases), confirming the reliability of EAO studbook records and providing the opportunity for breeders to confirm the ancestry of their horses.
Citation: Hudson W (2017) Whole-loop mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequence variability in Egyptian Arabian equine matrilines. PLoS ONE 12(8): e0184309. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184309
Editor: Glenn F. Browning, The University of Melbourne, AUSTRALIA
Received: October 19, 2016; Accepted: August 13, 2017; Published: August 31, 2017
Copyright: © 2017 William Hudson. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: The sequences supporting the conclusions of this article are available in the GenBank repository under accession numbers KU569909-KU569917 and KU575096.
Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.
Competing interests: I can also confirm that the disclosure that WMH is an Arabian horse breeder does not alter my adherence to all PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
Introduction
Arabian horses are one of the oldest pure breeds [1, 2]. In 1908, the Egyptian Agricultural Organization (EAO) established a closed breeding program of Arabian mares and stallions, known as Egyptian Arabian horses, which have been maintained in a state of genetic isolation since the mid 20th century. Up to fifteen generations of EAO Egyptian Arabian pedigree horses are documented, and the EAO keeps accurate records of the pedigrees of its stock organized by matriline (dam line), with each matriline having a unique family name, known as its strain (rasan). Traditional breeders (the Bedouin) have maintained strictly separated rasans and avoided crossbreeding between Arabian and non-Arabian horses; as a consequence, individuals within a rasan should belong to the same matriline and have the similar mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype.
mtDNA sequencing has been extensively used to study intra- and inter-species genetic relationships and structure since it is maternally inherited, haploid, and not subject to genetic recombination. In particular, the D-loop hypervariable region (HVR) of mitochondrial DNA yields the most information in matrilineal studies since it possesses a high degree of sequence variation but only a moderate mutation rate. D-loop mtDNA sequencing has previously been used to evaluate matrilineal pedigree validity in Polish Arabians, Lippizans, and English Thoroughbreds [3–8]. The D-loop region in horses contains two highly variable segments (HVR1 and HVR2), four conserved blocks (CSB), and variable eight base pair repeats [9].
Only a few previous mtDNA sequencing studies have included Arabian horse pedigrees [2, 6, 7, 10–12], and most of these only sequenced about 400 base pairs (bps) of the 1200 bp mtDNA D-loop. Furthermore, only a few of the EAO historical families have been haplotyped. An analysis of the entire mtDNA D-loop sequence of horses descended from all of the extant historical families of the EAO horse-breeding program was therefore conducted to investigate their evolutionary origins, within-population genetic diversity, and to better understand how historical strain breeding relates to maternal genetics.
Material and methods
Study population and sample collection
One hundred and twenty-six horses were included in the study. Study subjects were not chosen at random but were selected from living matrilineal descendants of the EAO foundation mares in the published pedigrees of Arabian horses registered with the Arabian Horse Association (AHA); the horses’ names, pedigrees, AHA registration number, coat color, and markings are on record.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, whole D-loop sequencing, and data analysis.
Primers to amplify the whole D-loop region of the horse mitochondrial genome (reference sequence X79547) were used as previously described [6]. Primers were designed to minimize the possible amplification of nuclear mtDNAs (NUMTs) that might overlap with the D-loop [6]. The HVR1 primer set was used to amplify the region upstream from sites 15440 to 16108 (forward: 5′-AGCTCCACCATCAACACCCAAA-3′, reverse 5′-CCATGGACTGAATAA CACCTTATGGTTG-3′), while the HVR2 primer set was used to amplify the region downstream from 16377 to 16642 (forward 5′-ACCTACCCGCGCAGTAAGCAA-3′, reverse 5′-ACGGGGGAAGAA GGGTTGACA-3′). PCR for HVR1 and HVR2 was conducted on each DNA sample in a final volume of 30 μl with the following reagents: 0.2 mM dNTPs, 0.5 μM of each primer, 2.5 mM MgCl2, 1X PCR buffer, 1U Titanium Taq polymerase (Clontech, Mountain View, CA), and 5 μl of eluted DNA. Cycling conditions for both PCR reactions were as follows: denaturation at 95°C for 5 min; 35 cycles of 95°C for 30 s, 58°C for 30 s, and 72°C for 1 min; extension at 72°C for 7 min; hold at 10°C. PCR products were purified using a 1:1 Agencourt-XP purification according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Beckman Coulter Inc., Pasadena, CA).
Forward and reverse sequencing was performed using the BigDye® Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing Kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). Sequencing products were purified using SEPHADEX® G-50 medium grade (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, Pittsburgh, PA) before being analyzed using a 3730xl capillary sequencer (Applied Biosystems) and edited using Geneious version 6.1.7 (Biomatters Ltd., Auckland, NZ). Edited sequences for each region (HVR1 and HVR2) were aligned to the reference sequence (X79547) using the MUSCLE algorithm included in the Geneious software package. The aligned sequences were then concatenated to form continuous coverage of the D-loop for each sample. The unsequenced non-hypervariable region from 16109–16376 was filled with sequence gaps (-) to maintain the correct segment length and sequence neutrality for that region. Concatenated sequences were separately re-aligned to X79547 using the previous parameters. MEGA version 6.0.5 was used to generate a variable site table for the sample lineages, as previously described [13]. All DNA sequences are available in GenBank under accession numbers KU569909-KU569917 and KU575096.
Statistical analysis
The sequencing results were first examined for discordant haplotypes, which were defined as any haplotype that occurred only once in the study population and was unique; a discordant haplotype was interpreted as indicating that the sample was either obtained from the incorrect horse or that the horse’s pedigree was incorrect. No attempt was made to analyze pedigree errors since this was not the primary objective of this study.
Phylogenetic inference was performed using MrBayes version 3.2. Input files were prepared using R (version 2.14.1). To calculate the measure of uncertainty, the Huelsenbeck and Bollback approach for inferring ancestral states was used [14], implemented in MrBaynes, and the validity of the haplotype identity inferences was addressed using the General Time Reversibility Model [15]. The Genbank control reference sequence X79547 (‘a Swedish horse’, as used previously [6]) was used as an out-group to root the tree. Only the terminal pedigree line individuals could be used in the analysis. In cases of direct mother-daughter or direct grandmother-granddaughter links occurring in the study subjects, the proximal individual was deleted from the statistical analysis and the distal horse was used. The program required a minimum of four individuals per historical family (HF), and those historical families with less than four individuals were excluded from the analysis.
Ethics statement
All horse owners provided written informed consent after full explanation of the purpose and procedures of the study. Venous blood samples were obtained directly from the owners as part of the horses’ routine surveillance and care and preserved on Whatman FTA Elute Micro Cards (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, Pittsburgh, PA). The study protocol was not submitted to or approved by an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC), but the research was conducted in full consideration of, and adherence to, the Basel Declaration.
Results and discussion
All horses shared a haplotype with at least one other horse. Since the majority of previous Arabian horse mtDNA studies only examined HVR1, polymorphisms occurring in this region were first examined for comparison with previous studies and evolutionary data. After eliminating four mutational hotspots at 15585, 15597, 15604, and 15650 [8, 16], 126 samples representing 14 matrilines provided evidence for nine unique whole loop mtDNA haplotypes based on HVR1 analysis alone (Table 1; designated M1-M10, with M1 and M3 the same in HVR1 polymorphism analysis). We next sought to establish whether these haplotypes corresponded to previous haplotype/haplogroup designations from evolutionary studies based on the nomenclature introduced by Cieslak et al. (2010) (haplogroups denoted A to K and X1 to X8). Eight out of the nine haplotypes corresponded to ancient haplotypes defined by Cieslak et al. (Table 1) and were similar in distribution to those recently reported for Arabian horses by Moridi et al. [17] (haplogroups A, D3, F, I, K3, X2, X3); one haplotype could not be assigned (M9). The wide variety and similarity of haplogroups within the EAO historical families is consistent with the large number of haplotypes known to occur in domestic horses and likely to have arisen from ancestral variability from primitive breeds across wide geographical areas over the last few thousand millennia [16]. For instance, haplogroup A has been detected in ancient remains of pre-domesticated horses from North East Siberia and Eurasia dating to the Late Pleistocene period (approximately 12,000 B.C.) and haplogroup F from the Copper Age. Three of the nine haplotypes had previously been reported in other Arabian horse studies (Table 1); El Dahma (M1, equivalent to A12 in [12]), Jellabiet Feysul and Ghazieh (M4, equivalent to A11 in [12] and M in [7]), and Rodania (M5, equivalent to A01 in [12] and K in [7]). These data suggest that the original horses captured and domesticated by the Bedouin already harbored a large amount of genetic diversity of Eurasian origin.
Analysis of the whole D-loop sequence yielded additional information compared to HVR1 analysis alone, with 10 haplotypes detected in total from 42 polymorphic sites compared to 9 haplotypes from 16 polymorphic sites, respectively (Table 2). There was also one cytosine insertion in haplotype M9 at base position 16371. Five of the ten haplotypes had unique substitutions (M2, M4, M5, M8, and M10). Although π decreased from 0.0155 to 0.0094, the haplotype diversity remained static and relatively low at 0.85 (HVR1) and 0.86 (whole-loop) (Table 3). Khanshour and Cothran (2013) reported similar whole-loop π values in Arabian horse populations (0.010–0.017), which are lower than the nucleotide diversities reported in Iranian (0.02) [17] and Chinese breeds (0.02) [18]. In spite of the historical origins of the maternal lineage, this lower nucleotide diversity is likely to reflect the careful selection of particular phenotypic characteristics of these horses and closed breeding programs.
The region corresponding to HVR1 is shown in grey. Blank spaces indicate concordance with the X79547 GenBank sequence.
These data confirm that modern mtDNA haplotyping does not correspond to the traditional strain designation based on Bedouin breeding traditions that depend on maternal lineage [6, 12]. Although all sample horses in each historical family possessed the same haplotype, haplotype M4 contained individuals from two historical families (Ghazieh and Jellabiet Feysul), while haplotype M5 contained individuals from four historical families (Venus, Rodania, Bint Karima, and Hind). This can be explained by two mechanisms: either all the historical families originated from a single common distant ancestress, or the results could be due to pedigree errors. The latter is unlikely since this would require three pedigree errors, and the former is supported by haplotype similarities with ancient haplogroups. Furthermore, individuals from different strains belonged to the same haplogroup (El Dahma and Roga El Beida to D3a3). Members of the Ghazieh and Jellabiet Feysul historical families had the same whole loop mtDNA haplotype and appeared to belong to a single matriline, which is consistent with previous results [12].
The aim of selective mating is to produce offspring with certain desirable phenotypic or behavioral characteristics. Genetic analysis can help clarify identification and the parentage of horses. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the foundation mares were highly likely to have the same haplotypes as the animals studied (p > 0.998 in all cases, Table 1), confirming the reliability of EAO studbook records; sequence stability ensures reliable determination of maternal haplotypes through multiple maternal generations over the timeframe of studbook records. These data constitute a valuable database against which living horses can be compared. The mares from which the EAO matrilines were derived were bred by Bedouin tribes living on the Arabian peninsula and have been sold to foreign buyers for several centuries, often with little or no documentary evidence of their pedigrees. If an owner suspects that their horse is descended from EAO matriline rootstock, DNA can be tested and the haplotype compared to these data to confirm the accuracy of the matrilineal pedigree.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Dr Scott Langdon at the Duke University DNA Analysis Facility, who performed the sequencing. The author also thanks the horse owners who contributed blood samples for this study.
References
- 1. Edwards JH. The genetics of the horse. J Genet 2001:159–161.
- 2. Glazewska I. Speculations on the origin of the Arabian horse breed. Livest Sci 2010, 129:49–55.
- 3. Hill EW, Bradley DG, Al-Barody M, Ertugrul O, Splan RK, Zakharov I, et al. History and integrity of thoroughbred dam lines revealed in equine mtDNA variation. Anim Genet 2002, 33:287–294. pmid:12139508
- 4. Vilà C, Leonard JA, Gotherstrom A, Marklund S, Sandberg K, Liden K, et al. Widespread origins of domestic horse lineages. Science 2001, 291:474–477. pmid:11161199
- 5. Ishida N, Oyunsuren T, Mashima S, Mukoyama H, Saitou N. Mitochondrial DNA sequences of various species of the genus Equus with special reference to the phylogenetic relationship between Przewalskii’s wild horse and domestic horse. J Mol Evol 1995, 41:180–188. pmid:7666447
- 6. Khanshour AM, Cothran EG. Maternal phylogenetic relationships and genetic variation among Arabian horse populations using whole mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequencing. BMC Genet 2013, 14:83. pmid:24034565
- 7. Głażewska I, Wysocka A, Gralak B, Prus R, Sell J. A new view on dam lines in Polish Arabian horses based on mtDNA analysis. Genet Sel Evol 2007, 39:609–619. pmid:17897600
- 8. Jansen T, Forster P, Levine MA, Oelke H, Hurles M, Renfrew C, et al. Mitochondrial DNA and the origins of the domestic horse. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002, 99:10905–10910.
- 9. Ishida N, Hasegawa T, Takeda K, Sakagami M, Onishi A, Inumaru S, et al. Polymorphic sequence in the D-loop region of equine mitochondrial DNA. Anim Genet 1994, 25:215–221. pmid:7985837
- 10. Bowling a. T, Valle A, Bowling M. Verification of horse maternal lineage based on derived mitochondrial DNA sequence. J Anim Breed Genet 1998, 115:351–355.
- 11. Achilli A, Olivieri A, Soares P, Lancioni H, Kashani BH, Perego UA, et al. Mitochondrial genomes from modern horses reveal the major haplogroups that underwent domestication. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2012:2449–2454. pmid:22308342
- 12. Bowling AT, Del Valle A, Bowling M. A pedigree-based study of mitochondrial D-loop DNA sequence variation among Arabian horses. Anim Genet 2000, 31:1–7. pmid:10690354
- 13. Tamura K, Stecher G, Peterson D, Filipski A, Kumar S. MEGA6: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis version 6.0. Mol Biol Evol 2013, 30:2725–9.
- 14. Huelsenbeck JP, Bollback JP. Empirical and hierarchical Bayesian estimation of ancestral states. Syst Biol 2001, 50:351–366. pmid:12116580
- 15. Lanave C, Preparata G, Sacone C, Serio G. A new method for calculating evolutionary substitution rates. J Mol Evol 1984:86–93.
- 16. Cieslak M, Pruvost M, Benecke N, Hofreiter M, Morales A, Reissmann M, et al. Origin and history of mitochondrial DNA lineages in domestic horses. PLoS One 2010, 5:e15311. pmid:21187961
- 17. Moridi M, Masoudi a a, Vaez Torshizi R, Hill EW. Mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequence variation in maternal lineages of Iranian native horses. Anim Genet 2013, 44:209–13. pmid:22732008
- 18. Zhang T, Lu H, Chen C, Jiang H, Wu S. Genetic Diversity of mtDNA D-loop and Maternal Origin of Three Chinese Native Horse Breeds. Asian-Australasian J Anim Sci 2012, 25:921–6.